Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
1.2 New technologies and large-scale copyright infringement ………………………………… 8
1.3 The challenge for enforcement…………………………………………………………………….. 13
1.4 The stakes on both sides……………………………………………………………………………… 16
1.5 Research question ………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
PART I: BACKGROUND……………………………………………………………………………… 27
2. LARGE-SCALE INFRINGEMENT………………………………………………………. 29
2.1 Introduction to this chapter………………………………………………………………………….. 29
2.2 Copyright infringement ………………………………………………………………………………. 29
2.3 The Internet facilitates copyright infringement ………………………………………………. 30
2.4 Different methods of large-scale copyright infringement online ………………………. 33
2.4.1 P2P Protocols…………………………………………………………………………………. 34
2.4.2 Usenet …………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
2.4.3 Cyber lockers …………………………………………………………………………………. 36
2.4.4 Streaming sites……………………………………………………………………………….. 36
2.4.5 New “Darknet” technologies ……………………………………………………………. 37
2.5 Players involved in copyright infringement online …………………………………………. 38
2.5.1 ‘The scene’…………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
2.5.2 Internet intermediaries …………………………………………………………………….. 39
2.5.3 Peers/users……………………………………………………………………………………… 42
2.6 The scale of copyright infringement online……………………………………………………. 43
2.6.1 What constitutes ‘large-scale’ copyright infringement? ……………………….. 43
2.6.2 Estimates on users engaged in copyright infringement ………………………… 45
2.6.3 Estimates on infringing content and traffic…………………………………………. 50
2.6.4 Type of infringing content ……………………………………………………………….. 52
2.7 The business of infringement ………………………………………………………………………. 53
2.8 Economic impact of infringement ………………………………………………………………… 54
3. LARGE-SCALE ENFORCEMENT………………………………………………………. 63
3.1 Introduction to this chapter………………………………………………………………………….. 63
3.2 New enforcement strategies: scaling-up………………………………………………………… 63
3.3 Different typologies for enforcement strategies……………………………………………… 71
3.4 A typology of enforcement strategies……………………………………………………………. 72
4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH DESIGN……………… 81
4.1 Introduction to this chapter………………………………………………………………………….. 81
4.2 The economics of enforcement…………………………………………………………………….. 81
4.3 Procedural safeguards…………………………………………………………………………………. 87
4.4 Case study research ……………………………………………………………………………………. 91
4.5 Conceptualizing cases…………………………………………………………………………………. 93
4.6 Criteria for case selection ……………………………………………………………………………. 94
4.7 Variables and data ……………………………………………………………………………………… 97
4.7.1 Scale……………………………………………………………………………………………… 98
4.7.2 Severity …………………………………………………………………………………………. 99
4.7.3 Safeguards……………………………………………………………………………………. 100
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4.7.4 Impact on infringement levels…………………………………………………………. 104
4.7.5 Costs of the system ……………………………………………………………………….. 104
4.8 Data collection/research tools…………………………………………………………………….. 105
4.9 Interviewees…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 106
4.10 Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
PART II: CASE STUDIES…………………………………………………………………………… 111
5. TARGETING END USERS DIRECTLY IN THE USA IN 2004-2013 ………… 113
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
5.2 Legal background …………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
5.3 The procedure in practice ………………………………………………………………………….. 118
5.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………………. 127
5.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………………. 137
5.6 The costs of the system……………………………………………………………………………… 140
5.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………. 142
6. TARGETING END USERS DIRECTLY IN THE UK IN 2006-2011 ……… 143
6.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 143
6.2 Legal background …………………………………………………………………………………….. 143
6.3 The procedure in practice ………………………………………………………………………….. 148
6.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………………. 150
6.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………………. 156
6.6 The costs of the system……………………………………………………………………………… 157
6.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………. 158
7. THE HADOPI GRADUATED RESPONSE PROCEDURE (FRANCE)
IN 2011-2013……………………………………………………………………………………….. 159
7.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 159
7.2 Legal background …………………………………………………………………………………….. 159
7.3 The procedure in practice ………………………………………………………………………….. 163
7.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………………. 168
7.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………………. 176
7.6 The costs of the system……………………………………………………………………………… 187
7.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………. 189
8. THE EIRCOM GRADUATED RESPONSE PROCEDURE (IRELAND)
IN 2010-2013……………………………………………………………………………………….. 191
8.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 191
8.2 Legal background …………………………………………………………………………………….. 192
8.3 The procedure in practice ………………………………………………………………………….. 196
8.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………………. 198
8.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………………. 204
8.6 The costs of the system……………………………………………………………………………… 205
8.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………. 207
9. NOTICE AND TAKEDOWN AT GOOGLE SEARCH AND YOUTUBE
IN 2011-2013……………………………………………………………………………………….. 209
9.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 209
9.2 Legal background …………………………………………………………………………………….. 209
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9.3 The procedure in practice ………………………………………………………………………….. 214
9.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………………. 221
9.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………………. 229
9.6 The costs of the system……………………………………………………………………………… 230
9.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………. 231
10. NOTICE AND TAKEDOWN IN THE NETHERLANDS IN 2009-2013…. 233
10.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………… 233
10.2 Legal background………………………………………………………………………………… 233
10.3 The procedure in practice ……………………………………………………………………… 242
10.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………….. 247
10.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………….. 255
10.6 The costs of the system ………………………………………………………………………… 256
10.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………….. 256
11. ‘OPERATION IN OUR SITES’ (USA) IN 2010-2013 ……………………………. 259
11.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………… 259
11.2 Legal background………………………………………………………………………………… 259
11.3 The procedure in practice ……………………………………………………………………… 261
11.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………….. 264
11.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………….. 275
11.6 The costs of the system ………………………………………………………………………… 276
11.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………….. 276
12. LEY SINDE (SPAIN) IN 2012-2013 ……………………………………………………… 279
12.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………… 279
12.2 Legal background………………………………………………………………………………… 280
12.3 The procedure in practice ……………………………………………………………………… 282
12.4 Scale, severity and procedural safeguards……………………………………………….. 284
12.5 Impact on infringement levels……………………………………………………………….. 289
12.6 The costs of the system ………………………………………………………………………… 294
12.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………….. 295
PART III: ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….. 297
13. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ………………………………………………………………. 299
13.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………… 299
13.2 Summary of case results……………………………………………………………………….. 301
13.3 Scale comes at the cost of safeguards …………………………………………………….. 312
13.4 Severity and scale do not mix ……………………………………………………………….. 315
13.5 Economic costs of increased enforcement ………………………………………………. 317
13.6 Enforcement has had little impact at its current scale ……………………………….. 320
13.7 Limitations …………………………………………………………………………………………. 323
13.8 Implications for policy …………………………………………………………………………. 326
SUMMARY ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 331
SUMMARY IN DUTCH………………………………………………………………………………. 339
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………………………….. 347
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Articles, Books, News, Websites……………………………………………………………………… 347
Case law used and referenced ………………………………………………………………………….. 385
Interviews and personal communication……………………………………………………………. 388
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………………………. 391
CURRICULUM VITAE………………………………………………………………………………. 395
NGINFRA PH.D THESIS SERIES ON INFRASTRUCTURES…………………………………… 397

Abstract

The Internet has facilitated large-scale copyright infringement. Fighting this one case at a time via the standard civil law procedures is costly in terms of time and money. In response, copyright holders have adopted new strategies that they hoped would be more effective at large-scale enforcement. The question is how these large-scale enforcement procedures impact procedural safeguards, most notably due process and fair trial. Empirical research into large-scale recent enforcement strategies has been limited and tended to focus on individual strategies, rather than on comparative analysis across different strategies and jurisdictions. This dissertation sets out to fill this gap. It presents a comparative empirical study of 22 sanctioning mechanisms from eight enforcement strategies in six countries between 2004 and 2014. It adds to the discussion on the regulation of copyrights and can help policymakers by illustrating the effect of choices made in different countries. For researchers in the field of information policy and law, it provides a detailed description of different enforcement initiatives and adds to the studies on human rights. This study shows that copyright enforcement procedures are able to scale-up only by offering fewer procedural safeguards to sanctioned parties. Similarly, procedures that impact on a larger scale provide less severe sanctions. The research has also shown that infringement levels are by and large unchanged, and that enforcement procedures create substantial costs, a significant portion of which are externalized to the state and to third parties.

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